We showed that the responses are fiber-specific, located ipsilaterally in the dorsal horn, and that they follow the somatotopy of afferent fiber entries in the dorsal horn and that the C-fiber response is an N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor-dependent mechanism. Then, using either natural or electrical stimulations of different categories of afferent fibers (Aβ, Aδ, and C fibers), we could define the characteristics of the typical hemodynamic response of the rat spinal cord experimentally. Using a combination of fUS and ultrasound localization microscopy, the first step of this study was the fine description of the vascular structures in the rat spinal cord. The aim of this study was to increase our understanding of the spinal cord physiology through the study of the properties of spinal hemodynamic response to the natural or electrical stimulation of afferent fibers.

Functional ultrasound imaging (fUS) is an emerging neuroimaging approach that allows, through the measurement of cerebral blood volume, the study of brain functional connectivity or functional activations with excellent spatial (100 μm) and temporal (1 msec) resolutions and a high sensitivity. This is mostly due to the limited spatial and/or temporal resolution of the available techniques. We contrast structural and reduced form empirical studies in environmental and resource economics.Despite a century of research on the physiology/pathophysiology of the spinal cord in chronic pain condition, the properties of the spinal cord were rarely studied at the large-scale level from a neurovascular point of view. Both methodologies have their own context-specific advantages and disadvantages, and should be viewed as complements, not substitutes. Structural models typically require a theoretical model and explicit assumptions about structural errors in order to recover the parameters of behavioral functions. These estimates may be required to measure general equilibrium welfare effects or to simulate intricate feedback loops between natural and economic processes. However, many of the assumptions used to recover structural estimates are untestable. The goal of reduced form studies is, conversely, to recover key parameters of interest using exogenous within-sample variation with as few structural assumptions as possible-reducing reliance on these assumptions assists in establishing causality in the relationship of interest. Reduced-form studies do, however, require assumptions of their own, e.g., the (quasi) randomness of an experiment with no spillover effects on the control group. There is an active debate over the advantages and disadvantages of reduced-form versus structural approaches to empirical modeling. While some subfields of economics rely heavily on structural methods (e.g., industrial organization and, more recently, public finance), others tend toward more reduced-form approaches (e.g., labor and development economics). In this article, we review some of the primary issues that arise in the implementation of each methodological approach and discuss the advantages and disadvantages of each. In so doing, we focus our attention on recent examples in environmental and resource economics.

We feel both methodological approaches have important advantages and disadvantages and that each may be better suited to answering particular types of questions. On the one hand, the structural approach is particularly useful in the presence of feedback loops, or when rational agents can reoptimize in response to large policy shifts.

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